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reflectable/doc/TheDesignOfReflectableCapabilities.md

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+# The Design of Reflectable Capabilities

[sigurdm, 2015/08/05 08:31:56]

It would be nice to refer to
http://www.dartdocs.org/documentation/reflectable/0.1.0/index.html#reflectabl...
(or rather the documentation page of the latest version) for an overview of
*using* the capabilities.

The dartdoc of capabilities should then be updated to give a nice introduction.

[eernst, 2015/08/05 14:22:19]

Done; it actually works to simply replace '0.1.0' by 'latest'. This might create
the problem that a viewer of an older version of package reflectable on github
will see a newer version of the library documentation when clicking on this
link. The trade-off is that this is more convenient than it would be to update
'0.1.0' to the new version number every time the version changes..

+
+This document is intended to document the design choices that we have
+made regarding the class `ReflectCapability` and its subtypes, which is a
+set of classes declared in the library
+`package:reflectable/capability.dart` in
+[package reflectable][package_reflectable]. We use the word
+**capability** to designate instances of subtypes of class
+`ReflectCapability`. This class and its subtypes are used when specifying
+the level of support that a client of the package reflectable will get
+for reflective operations in a given context, e.g., for instances of a
+specific class. We use the word **client** when referring to any software
+artifact which is importing and using the package reflectable, generally

[sigurdm, 2015/08/05 08:31:56]

"software artifact" reads like we're writing a legal document. Maybe call it
"dart program" or similar.

[eernst, 2015/08/05 14:22:19]

Obviously, it's illegal. ;-)

The point was that it applies to several different things (including a client
package and a client library). Reworded to preserve the generality without using
the word artifact.

+assuming that it is a package. Using one or another capability as
+metadata on a class `C` in client code may determine whether or not it is
+possible to reflectively `invoke` a method on an instance of `C` via an
+`InstanceMirror`. Given that the motivation for having the package
+reflectable in the first place is to save space consumed by less frugal
+kinds of reflection, the ability to restrict reflection support to the
+actual needs is a core point in the design of the package.
+
+[package_reflectable]: https://github.com/dart-lang/reflectable
+
+# Context and Design Ideas
+
+To understand the topics covered in this document, we need to briefly
+outline how to understand the package reflectable as a whole. Then we
+proceed to explain how we partition the universe of possible kinds of
+support for reflection, such that we have a set of kinds of reflection to
+choose from. Finally we explain how capabilities are used to make a
+selection among these choices, and how they can be applied to specific
+parts of the client program.
+
+## The Package Reflectable
+
+The package reflectable is an example of support for mirror-based
+introspective reflection in object-oriented languages in general, and it
+should be understandable as such [1]. More specifically, the
+reflection API offered by the package reflectable has been copied
+verbatim from the API offered by the package `dart:mirrors`, and then
+modified in a few ways. As a result, code using `dart:mirrors` should be
+very similar to corresponding code using package reflectable. The
+differences that do exist were introduced for two reasons:
+
+* By design, some operations which are declared as top-level functions in
+  `dart:mirrors` are declared as methods on the class `Reflectable` in
+  the package reflectable, because instances of subclasses thereof, known
+  as **reflectors**, are intended to play the role as mirror systems
+  [1, or search 'mirror systems' below], and these operations are
+  mirror system specific. For instance, the top-level function `reflect`
+  in `dart:mirrors` corresponds to two different methods (with different
+  semantics, so they cannot be merged) for two different mirror systems.
+
+* Some proposals have been made for changes to the `dart:mirrors` API. We
+  took the opportunity to try out an **updated API** by making
+  modifications in the signatures of certain methods. For instance,
+  `InstanceMirror.invoke` will return the result from the method
+  invocation, not an `InstanceMirror` wrapping it. In general, mirror
+  operations **return base level values** rather than mirrors thereof in
+  the cases where the mirrors are frequently discarded immediately, and
+  where it is easy to create the mirror if needed. Mirror class method
+  signatures have also been modified in one more way: Where
+  `dart:mirrors` methods accept arguments or return results involving
+  `Symbol`, package reflectable uses **`String`**. This helps avoiding
+  difficulties associated with minification (which is an automated,
+  pervasive renaming procedure that is applied to programs mainly in
+  order to save space), because `String` values remain unchanged
+  throughout compilation.
+
+In summary, the vast majority of the API offered by the package
+reflectable is identical to the API offered by `dart:mirrors`, and design
+documents about that API or about reflection in general [2,3]
+will serve to document the underlying ideas and design choices.
+
+## Reflection Capability Design
+
+The obvious novel element in package reflectable is that it allows
+clients to specify the level of support for reflection in a new way, by
+using capabilities in metadata. This section outlines the semantics of
+reflection capabilities, i.e., which kinds of criteria they should be
+able to express.
+
+In general, we maintain the property that the specifications of
+reflection support with one reflector (that is, inside one mirror-system)
+are **monotone**, in the sense that any program having a certain amount
+of reflection support specifications will support at least as many
+reflective operations if additional specifications are added to that
+reflector. In other words, reflection support specifications can request
+additional features, they can never prevent any reflection features from
+being supported. As a result, we obtain a modularity law: a programmer
+who browses source code and encounters a reflection support specification
+`S` somewhere can always trust that the corresponding kind of reflection
+support will be present in the program. Other parts of the program may
+still add even more reflection support, but they cannot withdraw the
+features requested by `S`. Similarly, the specifications are
+**idempotent**, that is, multiple specifications requesting the same
+feature or overlapping feature sets are harmless, it makes no difference
+whether a particular thing has been requested once or several times.
+
+### Mirror API Based Capabilities
+
+The level of support for reflection may in principle be specified in many
+ways: there is a plethora of ways to use reflection, and ideally the
+client should be able to request support for exactly that which is
+needed. In order to drastically simplify this universe of possibilities
+and still maintain a useful level of expressive power, we have decided to
+use the following stratification as an overall framework for the design:
+
+* The most basic kind of reflection support specification simply
+  addresses the API of the mirror classes directly, that is, it is
+  concerned with "turning on" support for the use of individual methods
+  or small groups of methods in the mirror classes. For instance, it is
+  possible to turn on support for `InstanceMirror.invoke` using one
+  capability, and another capability will turn on
+  `ClassMirror.invoke`. In case a supported method is called it behaves
+  like the corresponding method in a corresponding mirror class from
+  `dart:mirrors`; in case an unsupported method is called, an exception
+  is thrown.
+
+* As a refinement of the API based specification, we have chosen to focus
+  on the specification of allowable argument values given to specific
+  methods in the API. For instance, it is possible to specify a predicate
+  which is used to filter existing method names such that
+  `InstanceMirror.invoke` is supported for methods whose name satisfies
+  that predicate. An example usage could be testing, where reflective
+  invocation of all methods whose name ends in `...Test` might be a
+  convenient feature, as opposed to the purely static approach where
+  someone would have to write a centralized listing of all such methods,
+  which could then be used to call them.
+
+With these mechanisms, it is possible to specify support for reflection
+in terms of mirrors and the features that they offer, independently of
+the actual source code in the client program.
+
+### Reflectee Based Capabilities
+
+Another dimension in the support for reflection is the selection of which
+parts of the client program the mirrors will be able to reflect upon,
+both when a `ClassMirror` reflects upon one of those classes, and when an
+`InstanceMirror` reflects upon one of its instances. In short, this
+dimension is concerned with the available selection of reflectees.
+
+The general feature covering this type of specification is
+**quantification** over source code elements—in particular over
+classes (future extensions will deal with other entities). In this area
+we have focused on the mechanisms listed below. Note that `MyReflectable`
+is assumed to be the name of a subclass of `Reflectable` and
+`myReflectable` is assumed to be a `const` instance of `MyReflectable`,
+by canonicalization *the* unique `const` instance thereof. This allows us
+to refer to the general concept of a reflector in terms of the example,
+`myReflectable`, along with its class and similar associated
+declarations.
+
+* Reflection support is initiated by invoking one of the methods
+  `reflect` or `reflectType` on `myReflectable`. We have chosen to omit
+  the capability to do `reflect` (in the sense that this is always
+  possible) because there is little reason for having reflection at all
+  without support for instance mirrors. In contrast, we have chosen to
+  have a capability for obtaining class mirrors and similar source code
+  oriented mirrors, which also controls the ability to perform
+  `reflectType`; this is because having these mirrors may have
+  substantial cost in terms of program size. Finally, we have chosen to
+  omit the method `reflectClass`, because it may be replaced by
+  `reflectType`, followed by `originalDeclaration` when
+  `isOriginalDeclaration` is `false`.
+
+* The basic mechanism to get reflection support for a class `C` is to
+  attach metadata to it, and this metadata must be a reflector such as
+  `myReflectable`. The class `Reflectable` has a constructor which is
+  `const` and takes a single argument of type `List<ReflectCapability>`
+  and another constructor which takes up to ten arguments of type
+  `ReflectCapability` (thus avoiding the boilerplate that explicitly
+  makes it a list). `MyReflectable` must have a single constructor which
+  is `const` and takes zero arguments. It is thus enforced that
+  `MyReflectable` passes the `List<ReflectCapability>` in its constructor
+  via a superinitializer, such that every instance of `MyReflectable` has
+  the same state, "the same capabilities". In summary, this basic
+  mechanism will request reflection support for one class, at the level
+  specified by the capabilities stored in the metadata.
+
+* The reflection support specification can be non-local, that is, it
+  could be placed in a different location in the program than on the
+  target class itself. This is needed when there is a need to request
+  reflection support for a class in a library that cannot be edited (it
+  could be predefined, it could be provided by a third party such that
+  modifications incur repeated maintenance after updates, etc.). This
+  feature has been known as **side tags** since the beginnings of the
+  package reflectable. Currently they are attached as metadata to an
+  import directive for the library
+  `package:reflectable/reflectable.dart`, but they could in principle be
+  attached to any program element that admits metadata, or they could
+  occur in other `const` contexts, as long as there is a well-defined
+  convention for finding them such that they can have an effect.
+
+* Quantification generalizes the single-class specifications by allowing
+  a single specification to specify that the capabilities given as its
+  arguments should apply to a set of classes or other program
+  elements. It is easy to provide quantification mechanisms, but we do
+  not want to pollute the package with a bewildering richness of
+  quantification mechanisms, so each of the ones we have should be
+  comprehensible and reasonably powerful, and they should not overlap. So
+  far, we have focused on the following variants:
+    * It should be possible to specify that one or more specific classes
+      get a specific level of reflection support; this is a simple
+      generalization of side tags where the target is a list of classes
+      rather than a single class.
+    * It should be possible to request reflection support for a set of
+      classes chosen in a more abstract manner than by
+      enumeration. Obvious candidate quantification mechanisms quantify
+      over all superclasses of a given class; over all supertypes of a
+      given class; over all subclasses of a given class; over all
+      subtypes of a given class; and over all classes whose name matches
+      a given pattern.
+    * Quantification as in the previous bullet is centralized because it
+      is based on one specification which is then used to 'query' the
+      whole program (or certain large parts of it) for matching
+      entities. It is common and useful to supplement this with a
+      decentralized mechanism, where programmers manually enumerate the
+      members of a set, for instance by attaching a certain marker as
+      metadata to those members. This makes it possible to maintain the
+      set precisely and explicitly, even in the cases where the members
+      do not share obvious common traits that makes the centralized
+      approach convenient. A good example is that a set of methods can be
+      given reflective support by annotating them with metadata; for
+      instance, we may wish to be able to reflectively invoke all methods
+      marked with @businessRule.
+
+We subscribe to a point of view where reflective operations are divided
+into (a) operations concerned with the dynamic behavior of class
+instances, and (b) operations concerned with the structure of the
+program; let us call the former **behavioral operations** and the latter
+**introspective operations**. As an example, using
+`InstanceMirror.invoke` in order to execute a method on the reflectee
+is a behavioral operation, whereas it is an introspective operation to
+use `ClassMirror.declarations` in order to investigate the set of members
+that an instance of the reflected class would have.
+
+An important consequence of this distinction is that behavioral
+operations are concerned with the actual behaviors of objects, which
+means that inherited method implementations have the same status as
+method implementations declared in the class which is the runtime type of
+the reflectee. Conversely, introspective operations are concerned with
+source code entities such as declarations, and hence the `declarations`
+reported for a given class does *not* include inherited declarations,
+they must be found by explicitly iterating over the superclass chain.
+
+Finally, we need to mention the notion of a **mirror system**, that is, a
+set of features which provides support for mirror based reflection. This
+is because we may have several of them: With a choice of a level of
+reflection support (based on the mirror APIs), and a choice of classes
+for which this level of support should be provided (based on reflectee
+selection), it is reasonable to say that we have specified a mirror
+system. Using multiple mirror systems is relevant in cases where some
+classes (and/or their instances) require very different levels of
+support. For example, when a few classes require extensive reflection
+support and a large number of other classes require just a little bit,
+using a powerful mirror system with the former and a minimalist one with
+the latter may be worth the effort, due to the globally improved resource
+economy. Some extra complexity must be expected; e.g., if we can obtain
+both a "cheap" and a "powerful" mirror for the same object it will happen
+via something like `myCheapReflectable.reflect(o)` and
+`myPowerfulReflectable.reflect(o)`, and it is then up to the programmer
+to avoid asking the cheap one to do powerful things.
+
+# Specifying Reflection Capabilities
+
+As mentioned on page 1, reflection capabilities are specified using the
+subtype hierarchy rooted in the class **`ReflectCapability`**, in
+`package:reflectable/capability.dart`. Instances of these classes are
+used to build something that may well be considered as abstract syntax
+trees for a domain specific language. This section describes how this
+setup can be used to specify reflection support.
+
+The subtype hierarchy under `ReflectCapability` is sealed, in the sense
+that there is a set of subtypes of `ReflectCapability` in that library,
+and there should never be any other subtypes of that class; the language
+does not enforce this concept, but it is a convention that should be
+followed.
+
+Being used as `const` values, instances of these classes obviously cannot
+have mutable state, but some of them do contain `const` values such as
+`String`s or other capabilities. They do not have methods, except the
+ones that they inherit from `Object`. Altogether, this means that
+instances of these classes cannot "do anything", but they can be used to
+build immutable trees, and the universe of possible trees is fixed
+because the set of classes is fixed. This makes the trees similar to
+abstract syntax trees, and we can ascribe a semantics to these syntax
+trees from the outside. That semantics may be implemented by an
+interpreter or a translator. The sealedness of the set of classes
+involved is required because an unknown subtype of `ReflectCapability`
+would not have a semantics, and interpreters and translators would not be
+able to handle them (and we haven't been convinced that a suitable level
+of extensibility in those interpreters and translators is worth the
+effort).
+
+In other words, we specify reflection capabilities by building an
+abstract syntax tree for an expression in a domain specific language; let
+us call that language the **reflectable capability language**.
+
+It is obviously possible to have multiple representations of expressions
+in this language, and we have considered introducing a traditional,
+textual syntax for it. We could have a parser that accepts a `String`,
+parses it, and yields an abstract syntax tree consisting of instances of
+subtypes of `ReflectCapability`, or reports a syntax error. A
+`Reflectable` constructor taking a `String` argument could be provided,
+and the `String` could be parsed when needed. This would be a convenient
+(but less safe) way for programmers to specify reflection support,
+possibly as an alternative to the current approach where the abstract
+syntax trees must be specified directly.
+
+However, the textual syntax is used in this document only because it is
+concise and easy to read, it has not been (and might never be)
+implemented. Hence, actual code using the reflectable capability language
+will have to use the more verbose form that directly builds an object
+structure representing an abstract syntax tree for that
+expression. Example code showing how this is done can be found in the
+package test_reflectable.
+
+In this document, we will discuss this language in terms of its
+grammatical structure, along with an informal semantics of each
+construct.
+
+## Specifying Mirror API Based Capabilities
+
+Figure 1 shows the raw material for the elements in one part of the
+reflectable capability language grammar. The left side of the figure
+contains tokens representing abstract concepts for clustering, and the
+right side contains tokens representing each of the methods in the entire
+mirror API. A few tokens represent more than one method (for instance,
+all of `VariableMirror`, `MethodMirror`, and `TypeVariableMirror` have an
+`isStatic` getter, and `metadata` is also defined in two classes), but
+they have been merged into one token because those methods play the same
+role semantically in all contexts where they occur. In other cases where
+the semantics differ (`invoke`, `invokeGetter`, `invokeSetter`, and
+`declarations`) there are multiple tokens for each method name,
+indicating the enclosing mirror class with a prefix ending in `_`.
+
+&nbsp;

[sigurdm, 2015/08/05 08:31:56]

I think github will render the table properly without this.

[floitsch, 2015/08/05 11:02:49]

I would prefer not to have HTML in the document, unless there is no other way...

[eernst, 2015/08/05 14:22:19]

Indeed. Removed.

[eernst, 2015/08/05 14:22:19]

The HTML-free (markdown-style) tables are not pretty (long lines), but otherwise
there were no problems getting rid of the HTML.

+
+<table>
+  <tr>
+    <td><strong>Concept</strong></td>
+    <td><strong>Specialization<strong></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><i>invocation</i></td>
+    <td>
+      instance&#95;invoke | class&#95;invoke |

[sigurdm, 2015/08/05 08:31:56]

Github-flavored markdown does not parse underscores inside words as italics
markers.

Also markdown allows escaping with `\`

[eernst, 2015/08/05 14:22:19]

Using that now.

+      library_invoke | instance_invokeGetter |
+      class_invokeGetter | library_invokeGetter |
+      instance_invokeSetter | class_invokeSetter |
+      library_invokeSetter | delegate |
+      apply | newInstance
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><i>naming</i></td>
+    <td>simpleName | qualifiedName | constructorName</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><i>classification</i></td>
+    <td>isPrivate | isTopLevel | isImport | isExport |
+      isDeferred | isShow | isHide | isOriginalDeclaration |
+      isAbstract | isStatic | isSynthetic | isRegularMethod |
+      isOperator | isGetter | isSetter | isConstructor |
+      isConstConstructor | isGenerativeConstructor |
+      isRedirectingConstructor | isFactoryConstructor | isFinal |
+      isConst | isOptional | isNamed | hasDefaultValue |
+      hasReflectee | hasReflectedType
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><i>annotation</i></td>
+    <td>metadata</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><i>typing</i></td>
+    <td>instance&#95;type | variable&#95;type | parameter&#95;type |
+      typeVariables | typeArguments | originalDeclaration |
+      isSubtypeOf | isAssignableTo | superclass | superinterfaces |
+      mixin | isSubclassOf | returnType | upperBound | referent
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><i>concretization</i></td>
+    <td>reflectee | reflectedType</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><i>introspection</i></td>
+    <td>owner | function | uri | library&#95;declarations |
+      class&#95;declarations | libraryDependencies | sourceLibrary |
+      targetLibrary | prefix | combinators | instanceMembers |
+      staticMembers | parameters | callMethod | defaultValue
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><i>text</i></td>
+    <td>location | source</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+**Figure 1.** Reflectable capability language API raw material.
+
+Figure 2 shows a reduction of this raw material to a set of capabilities
+that we consider reasonable. It does not allow programmers to select
+their capabilities with the same degree of detail, but we expect that the
+complexity reduction is sufficiently valuable to justify the less
+fine-grained control.
+
+We have added *`RegExp`* arguments, specifying that each of these
+capabilities can meaningfully apply a pattern matching constraint to
+select the methods, getters, etc. which are included. With the empty
+*`RegExp`* as the default value, all entities in the relevant category
+are included when no *`RegExp`* is given. Similarly, we have created
+variants taking a *`MetadataClass`* argument which expresses that an
+entity in the relevant category is included iff it has been annotated
+with metadata whose type is a subtype of the given
+*`MetadataClass`*. This provides support for centralized and slightly
+abstract selection of entities using regular expressions, and it provides
+support for decentralized selection of entities using metadata to
+explicitly mark the entities.
+
+It is important to note that the *`MetadataClass`* is potentially
+unrelated to the package reflectable: We expect the use case where some
+class `C` from a package `P` unrelated to reflectable happens to fit
+well, because instances of `C` are already attached as metadata to the
+relevant set of members, which would in turn be the case because the need
+for reflection arises as a consequence of the semantics of `C` as
+metadata relative to `P`.
+
+&nbsp;
+
+<table>
+  <tr>
+    <td><strong>Non-terminal</strong></td>
+    <td><strong>Expansion</strong></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><i>apiSelection</i></td>
+    <td><i>invocation</i> | <i>naming</i> | <i>classification</i> |
+      <i>annotation</i> | <i>typing</i> | <i>introspection</i>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><i>invocation</i></td>
+    <td>instanceInvoke([<i>RegExp</i>]) |
+      instanceInvokeMeta(<i>MetadataClass</i>) |
+      staticInvoke([<i>RegExp</i>]) |
+      staticInvokeMeta(<i>MetadataClass</i>) |
+      newInstance([<i>RegExp</i>]) |
+      newInstanceMeta(<i>MetadataClass</i>)
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><i>naming</i></td>
+    <td>name</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><i>classification</i></td>
+    <td>classify</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><i>annotation</i></td>
+    <td>metadata</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><i>typing</i></td>
+    <td>type([<i>UpperBound</i>]) | typeRelations</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td><i>introspection</i></td>
+    <td>owner | declarations | uri | libraryDependencies</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+**Figure 2.** Reflectable capability language API grammar tokens.
+
+The category *text* was removed because we do not plan to support
+reflective access to the source code as a whole at this point; *naming*
+has been expressed atomically as name because we do not want to
+distinguish among the different kinds of names, and similarly for all the
+*classification* predicates. The category *concretization* was removed
+because it is trivial to support these features, so they are always
+enabled.
+
+We have omitted `apply` and `function` because we do not have support for
+`ClosureMirror` and we do not expect to get it anytime soon.
+
+Moreover, `delegate` was made implicit such that the ability to invoke a
+method implies the ability to delegate to it.
+
+The category *typing* was simplified in several ways: `instance_type` was
+renamed into `type` because of its prominence. It optionally receives an
+*`UpperBound`* argument which puts a limit on the available class mirrors
+(class mirrors will only be supported for classes which are subclasses of
+that *`UpperBound`*). The method `reflectType` on reflectors is only
+supported when this capability is present, and only on class mirrors
+passing the *`UpperBound`*, if any. The capabilities `variable_type`,
+`parameter_type`, and `returnType` were unified into `type` because they
+are concerned with lookups for the same kind of mirrors. To give some
+control over the level of detail in the type related mirrors,
+`typeVariables`, `typeArguments`, `originalDeclaration`, `isSubtypeOf`,
+`isAssignableTo`, `superclass`, `superinterfaces`, `mixin`,
+`isSubclassOf`, `upperBound`, and `referent` were unified into
+`typeRelations`; they all address relations among types, type variables,
+and `typedef`s, and it may be a substantial extra cost to preserve
+information about these topics if it is not used.
+
+The category *introspection* was also simplified: We unified
+`class_declarations`, `library_declarations`, `instanceMembers`,
+`staticMembers`, `callMethod`, `parameters`, and `defaultValue` into
+`declarations`. Finally we unified the import and export properties into
+`libraryDependencies` such that it subsumes `sourceLibrary`,
+`targetLibrary`, `prefix`, and `combinators`. We have retained the
+`owner` capability separately, because we expect the ability to look up
+the enclosing declaration for a given declaration to be too costly to
+include implicitly as part of another capability; and we have retained
+the `uri` capability separately because the preservation of information
+about URIs in JavaScript translated code (which is needed in order to
+implement the method uri on a library mirror) has been characterized as a
+security problem in some contexts.
+
+Note that certain reflective methods are **non-elementary** in the sense
+that they can be implemented entirely based on other reflective methods,
+the **elementary** ones. This affects the following capabilities:
+`isSubtypeOf`, `isAssignableTo`, `isSubclassOf`, `instanceMembers`, and
+`staticMembers`. These methods can be implemented in a general manner even
+for transformed programs, so they are provided as part of the package
+reflectable rather than being generated. Hence, they are supported if and
+only if the methods they rely on are supported. This is what it means
+when we say that `instanceMembers` is 'unified into' `declarations`.
+
+### Covering Multiple API Based Capabilities Concisely
+
+In order to avoid overly verbose syntax in the cases where relatively
+broad reflection support is requested, we have chosen to introduce some
+grouping tokens. They do not contribute anything new, they just offer a
+more concise notation for certain selections of capabilities that are
+expected to occur together frequently. Figure 3 shows these grouping
+tokens. As an aid to remember what this additional syntax means, we have
+used words ending in 'ing' to give a hint about the tiny amount of
+abstraction involved in grouping several capabilities into a single
+construct.
+
+&nbsp;
+
+<table>

[sigurdm, 2015/08/05 08:31:56]

The tables could also be formatted as 

|header1|header2 |
|-------|--------|
|d1     |d2      |

Not sure what is better.

[eernst, 2015/08/05 14:22:19]

Did that; works nicely, except that I can't see a way to avoid long lines (e.g.,
345 chars long).

+  <tr>
+    <td><strong>Group</strong></td>
+    <td><strong>Meaning</strong></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>invoking([<i>RegExp</i>])</td>
+    <td>instanceInvoke([<i>RegExp</i>]), staticInvoke([<i>RegExp</i>]),
+      newInstance([<i>RegExp</i>])
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>invokingMeta(<i>MetadataClass</i>)</td>

[sigurdm, 2015/08/05 08:31:56]

Italics should be possible with _word_

[eernst, 2015/08/05 14:22:19]

Not in nested html, which is the reason why I couldn't use a "code block" in
here, which was the main reason why the solution using an HTML table wasn't nice
in the first place.

Now using *italics* in the markdown-style tables. Using `func(`*`expression`*`)`
style elements to indicate that parts of an expression are metavariables. This
produces an ugly bump (a non-boxed stripe) in the middle of the expression, but
everything else is OK. There might be a trick which will enable us to avoid that
bump (saw something about using a "zero width character" for exactly that kind
of situation, but cannot find it right now.

+    <td>instanceInvokeMeta(<i>MetadataClass</i>),
+      staticInvokeMeta(<i>MetadataClass</i>),
+      newInstanceMeta(<i>MetadataClass</i>)
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>typing([<i>UpperBound</i>])</td>
+    <td>type([<i>UpperBound</i>]), name, classify, metadata,
+      typeRelations, owner, declarations, uri, libraryDependencies
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+**Figure 3.** Grouping tokens for the reflectable capability language.
+
+<!-- Glitch: It seems to be impossible to specify italics inside a code -->
+<!-- block, which means that we cannot indicate that 'RegExp' is a -->
+<!-- meta-variable whereas 'invoking' is concrete syntax. No solution -->
+<!-- seems to exist for this problem, or at least none known to -->
+<!-- stackoverflow. This affects several expressions in the next -->
+<!-- paragraph. -->
+
+The semantics of including the capability `invoking(RegExp)` where
+*`RegExp`* stands for a given argument is identical to the semantics of
+including all three capabilities in the same row on the right hand side
+of the figure, giving all of them the same *`RegExp`* as
+argument. Similarly, `invoking()` without an argument requests support
+for reflective invocation of all instance methods, all static methods,
+and all constructors. The semantics of including the capability
+`invokingMeta(MetadataClass)` is the same as the semantics of including
+all three capabilities to the right in the same row, with the same
+argument. Finally, the semantics of including `typing(UpperBound)` is to
+request support for all the capabilities on the right, passing
+*`UpperBound`* to the `type` capability; that is, requesting support for
+every feature associated with information about the program structure,
+bounded by the given *`UpperBound`*; and `typing()` without an argument
+works the same, only with `type()`.
+
+## Specifying Reflectee Based Capabilities
+
+In the previous section we found a way to specify mirror API based
+capabilities as a grammar. It is very simple, because it consists of
+terminals only, apart from the fact that some of these terminals take an
+argument that is used to restrict the supported arguments to the matching
+names. As shown in Fig. 2, the non-terminal *`apiSelection`* covers them
+all. We shall use them several at a time, so the typical usage is a list,
+written as *`apiSelection*`*.
+
+In this section we discuss how the reflection support specified by a
+given *`apiSelection*`* can be requested for a specific set of
+program elements. Currently the only supported kind of program element is
+classes, but this will be generalized later. The program elements that
+receive reflection support are called the **targets** of the
+specification, and the specification itself is given as a
+superinitializer in a subclass (call it `MyReflectable`) of class
+`Reflectable`, with a unique instance (call it `myReflectable`). Now,
+`myReflectable` is used as metadata somewhere in the program, and each
+kind of capability is only applicable as an annotation in certain
+locations, which is discussed below.
+
+Figure 4 shows how capabilities and annotations can be constructed,
+generally starting from an *`apiSelection*`*. The non-terminals in
+this part of the grammar have been named after the intended location of
+the metadata which is or contains a capability of the corresponding kind.
+
+&nbsp;
+
+<table>
+  <tr>
+    <td><strong>Non-terminals</strong></td>
+    <td><strong>Expansions</strong></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>reflector</td>
+    <td>Reflectable(targetMetadata)</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>targetMetadata</td>
+    <td>apiSelection&#42; | subtypeQuantify(apiSelection&#42;) |
+      admitSubtype(apiSelection&#42;)
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>globalMetadata</td>
+    <td>globalQuantify(RegExp, reflector) |
+      globalQuantifyMeta(MetadataClass, reflector)
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+**Figure 4.** Reflectable capability language target selection.
+
+In practice, a *`reflector`* is an instance of a subclass of class
+`Reflectable` that is directly attached to a class as metadata, or passed
+to a global quantifier; in the running example it is the object
+`myReflectable`. The reflector has one piece of state that we model with
+*`targetMetadata`*. In the grammar in Fig. 4 we use the identifier
+`Reflectable` to stand for all the subclasses, and we model the state by
+letting it take the corresponding *`targetMetadata`* as an argument. The
+semantics of annotating a class with a given *`reflector`* depends on the
+*`targetMetadata`*, as described below.
+
+A *`targetMetadata`* capability can be a base level set of capabilities,
+that is, an *`apiSelection*`*, and it can also be a quantifier taking
+such an *`apiSelection*`* as an argument. The semantics of attaching
+a *`reflector`* containing a plain *`apiSelection*`* to a target
+class `C` is that reflection support at the level specified by the given
+*`apiSelection*`* is provided for the class `C` and instances
+thereof. The semantics of attaching a *`reflector`* containing
+`subtypeQuantify(apiSelection*)` to a class `C` is that the reflection
+support specified by the given *`apiSelection*`* is provided for all
+classes which are subtypes of the class `C`, including `C` itself, and
+their instances. The semantics of attaching a *`reflector`* containing
+`admitSubtype(apiSelection*)` to a class `C` is a pragmatic mix of the
+former two which is subtle enough to warrant a slightly more detailed
+discussion, given in the next section. The basic idea is that it allows
+instances of subtypes of the target class to be treated as if they were
+instances of the target class.
+
+Finally, we support side tags using global quantifiers,
+`globalQuantify(RegExp, reflector)` and
+`globalQuantifyMeta(MetadataClass, reflector)`. Currently, we have
+decided that they must be attached as metadata to an import statement
+importing `package:reflectable/reflectable.dart`, but we may relax this
+restriction if other placements turn out to be helpful in practice. Due
+to the monotone semantics of capabilities it is not a problem if a given
+program contains more than one such *`globalMetadata`*, the provided
+reflection support will simply be the least one that satisfies all
+requests.
+
+The semantics of having `globalQuantify(RegExp, reflector)` in a program
+is ideally identical to the semantics of having the given *`reflector`*
+attached directly to each of those classes in the program whose qualified
+name matches the given *`RegExp`*. Similarly, the semantics of having
+`globalQuantifyMeta(MetadataClass, reflector)` in a program is ideally
+identical to the semantics of having the given *`reflector`* attached
+directly to each of those classes whose metadata includes an instance of
+type *`MetadataClass`*. At this point, however, we must add an adjustment
+to the ideal goal that the semantics is identical: Access to private
+declarations may not be fully supported with a *`globalMetadata`*. This
+is discussed in the next section.
+
+### Completely or Partially Mirrored Instances?
+
+Traditionally, it is assumed that reflective access to an instance, a
+class, or some other entity will provide a complete and faithful view of
+that entity. For instance, it should be possible for reflective code to
+access features declared as private even when that reflective code is
+located in a context where non-reflective access to the same features
+would not be allowed. Moreover, when a reflective lookup is used to learn
+which class a given object is an instance of, it is expected that the
+response describes the actual runtime type of the object, and not some
+superclass such as the statically known type of that object in some
+context.
+
+In the package reflectable there are reasons for violating this
+completeness assumption, and some of them are built-in consequences of
+the reasons for having this package in the first place. In other words,
+these restrictions will not go away entirely. Other restrictions may be
+lifted in the future, because they were introduced based on certain
+trade-offs made in the implementation of the package.
+
+The main motivation for providing the package reflectable is that the
+more general support for reflection provided by the `dart:mirrors`
+package tends to be too costly at runtime in terms of program
+size. Hence, it is a core point for package reflectable to specify a
+restricted version of reflection that fits the purposes of a given
+program, such that it can be done using a significantly smaller amount of
+space. Consequently, it will be perfectly normal for such a program to
+have reflective support for an object without reflective access to, say,
+some of its methods. There are several other kinds of coverage which is
+incomplete by design, and they are not a problem: they are part of the
+reason for using package reflectable in the first place.
+
+The following subsections discuss two different situations where some
+restrictions apply that are not there by design. We first discuss cases
+where access to private features is incomplete, and then we discuss the
+consequences of admitting subtypes as specified with
+`admitSubtype(apiSelection*)`.
+
+#### Privacy Related Restrictions
+
+The restrictions discussed in this subsection are motivated by trade-offs
+in the implementation in package reflectable, so we need to mention some
+implementation details. The package reflectable has been designed for
+program transformation, i.e., it is intended that a source to source
+transformer shall be able to receive a given program (which is using
+package reflectable, and indirectly `dart:mirrors`) as input, and
+transform it to an equivalent program that does not use `dart:mirrors`,
+generally by generating mirror implementation classes containing
+ordinary, non-reflective code.
+
+Ordinary code cannot violate privacy restrictions. Hence, reflective
+operations cannot, say, read or write a private field in a different
+library. The implication is that private access can only be supported for
+classes declared in a library which can be transformed, because only then
+can the generated mirror implementation class coexist with the target
+class. Using a transformer as we currently do (and plan to do in the
+future), all libraries in the client package can be transformed. However,
+libraries outside the client package cannot be transformed, which in
+particular matters for libraries from other packages, and for pre-defined
+libraries.
+
+For some libraries which cannot be transformed, it would be possible to
+create a local copy of the library in the client package and modify the
+program globally such that it uses that local copy, and such that the
+semantics of the copied library is identical to the semantics of the
+original. This cannot be done for libraries that contain language
+primitives which cannot be implemented in the language; for instance, the
+pre-defined class int cannot be replaced by a user-defined
+class. Moreover, the need to copy and adjust one library could propagate
+to another library, e.g., if the latter imports the former. Hence, not
+even this workaround would enable transformation of all libraries. We do
+not currently have any plans to use this kind of techniques, and hence
+only libraries in the current package can be transformed.
+
+Given that the main transformation technique for package reflectable is
+to generate a number of mirror classes for each target class, this means
+that access to private declarations cannot be supported for classes in
+libraries that cannot be transformed. This applies to private classes as
+a whole, and it applies to private declarations in public classes.
+
+It should be noted that transformation of libraries imported from other
+packages might be manageable to implement, but it requires changes to the
+basic tools used to process Dart programs, e.g., pub. Alternatively, it
+is possible that this restriction can be lifted in general in the future,
+if the tools (compilers, analyzers, etc.) are modified to support a
+privacy overriding mechanism.
+
+#### Considerations around Admitting Subtypes
+
+When a *`targetMetadata`* on the form *`apiSelection*`* is attached to a
+given class `C`, the effect is that reflection support is provided for
+the class `C` and for instances of `C`. However, that support can be
+extended to give partial reflection support for instances of subtypes of
+`C` in a way that does not incur further costs in terms of program size:
+A mirror generated for instances of class `C` can have a `reflectee` (the
+object being mirrored by that mirror) whose type is a proper subtype of
+`C`. A *`targetMetadata`* on the form `admitSubtype(apiSelection*)` is
+used to specify exactly this: It enables an instance mirror to hold a
+reflectee which is an instance of a proper subtype of the type that the
+mirror was generated for.
+
+The question arises which instance mirror to use for a given object *O*
+with runtime type `D` which is given as an argument to the operation
+`reflect` on a reflector, when there is no mirror class which was created
+for exactly `D`. This is the situation where a subtype reflectee is
+actually admitted. In general, there may be multiple candidate mirror
+classes corresponding to classes `C1, C2, .. Ck` which are "least
+supertypes of `D`" in the sense that no type `E` is a proper supertype of
+`D` and a proper subtype of `Ci` for any `i` (this also implies that no
+two classes `Ci` and `Cj` are subtypes of each other).  The language
+specification includes an algorithm which will find a uniquely determined
+supertype of `C1 .. Ck` which is called their **least upper bound**. We
+cannot use this algorithm directly because we have an arbitrary subset of
+the types in a type hierarchy rather than all types, and then we need to
+make a similar decision for this "sparse" subtype hierarchy that only
+includes classes with reflection support from the given
+reflector. Nevertheless, we expect that it is possible to create a
+variant of the least upper bound algorithm which will work for these
+sparse subtype hierarchies.
+
+It should be noted that a very basic invariant which is commonly assumed
+for reflection support in various languages is violated: An instance
+mirror constructed for type `C` can have a reflectee which is an instance
+of a proper subtype `D`. Of course, not all mirror systems have anything
+like the notion of a mirror that is constructed for a given type, but the
+corresponding problem is relevant everywhere: The mirror will not report
+on the properties of the object as-is, it will report on the properties
+of instances of a supertype. This is a kind of incompleteness, and it
+even causes the mirror to give plain *incorrect* descriptions of the
+object in some cases.
+
+In particular, assume that an object *O* with runtime type `D` is given,
+and that we have an instance mirror *IM* whose reflectee is *O*. Assume
+that the class of *IM* was generated for instances of a class `C`, which
+is a proper supertype of `D`. It is only because of `admitSubtype` that
+it is even possible for *IM* to have a `reflectee` whose `runtimeType` is
+not `C`. In many situations this discrepancy makes no difference and *IM*
+works fine with *O*, but it is informative to focus on a case where it
+really matters:
+
+<!-- Cannot make 'IM' italic in 'IM.type', hence using a rather messy -->
+<!-- mixed notation. -->
+
+Let us use a reflective operation on *IM* to get a class mirror for the
+class of *O*. *IM*.`type` will return an instance *CM* of the class mirror
+for `C`, not a class mirror for *O*'s actual runtime type `D`. If a
+programmer uses this approach to look up the name of the class of an
+object like *O*, the answer will simply be wrong, it says `"C"` and it
+should have said `"D"`. Similarly, if we traverse the superclasses we
+will never see the class `D`, nor the intermediate classes between `D`
+and `C`. A real-world example is serialization: if we look up the
+declarations of fields in order to serialize the reflectee then we will
+silently fail to include the fields declared in the ignored subclasses
+down to `D`. In general, there are many unpleasant surprises waiting for
+the naive user of this feature, so it should be considered to be an
+expert-only option.
+
+Why not just do the "right thing" and return a class mirror for `D`? It is
+not possible to simply check the `runtimeType` of `reflectee` in the
+implementation of the method type, and then deliver a class mirror of `D`
+because, typically, there *is* no class mirror for `D`. In fact, the whole
+point of having the `admitSubtype` quantifier is that it saves space
+because a potentially large number of subtypes of a given type can be
+given partial reflection support without the need to generate a
+correspondingly large number of mirror classes.
+
+To further clarify what it means to get 'partial' reflective support,
+consider some cases:
+
+Reflectively calling instance methods on *O* which are declared in `C` or
+inherited into `C` will work as expected, and standard object-oriented
+method invocation will ensure that it is the correct method
+implementation for *O* which is called, not just the most specific
+implementation which is available in `C`.
+
+Calling instance methods on *O* which are declared in a proper subtype of
+`C`, including methods from `D` itself, will not work. This is because
+the class of *IM* has been generated under the assumption that no such
+methods exist, it only knows about `C` methods. As mentioned, if we fetch
+the class of *O* we may get a proper supertype of the actual class of
+*O*, and hence all the derived operations will be similarly affected. For
+instance, the declarations from *CM* will be the declarations in `C`, and
+they have nothing to do with the declarations in `D`. Similarly, if we
+traverse the superclasses then we will only see a strict suffix of the
+actual list of superclasses of the class of *O*.
+
+Based on these serious issues, we have decided that when an instance
+mirror is associated with the `admitSubtype` quantifier, it shall be an
+error to execute the `type` method in order to obtain a mirror of a
+class, because it is very unlikely to work as intended when that class is
+in fact not the class of the reflectee. It would be possible to allow it
+in the cases where the match happens to be perfect, but this would be
+difficult for programmers to use, and they may as well use `reflectType`
+directly if they want to reflect upon a class which is not taken directly
+from an instance.
+
+In summary, there is a delicate trade-off to make in the case where an
+entire subtype hierarchy should be equipped with reflection support. The
+trade off is to either pay the price in terms of program size and get
+full support (using `subtypeQuantify`); or to save space aggressively and
+in return tolerate the partial support for reflection (using
+`admitSubtype`).
+
+# Summary
+
+We have described the design of the capabilities used in the package
+reflectable to specify the desired level of support for reflection. The
+underlying idea is that the capabilities at the base level specify a
+selection of operations from the API of the mirror classes, along with
+some simple restrictions on the allowable arguments to those
+operations. On top of that, the API based capabilities can be associated
+with specific parts of the target program (though at this point only
+classes) such that exactly those classes will have the reflection support
+specified with the API based capabilities. The target classes can be
+selected individually, by adding a reflector as metadata on each target
+class. Alternatively, target classes can be selected by quantification:
+It is possible to quantify over all subtypes, in which case not only the
+class `C` that holds the metadata receives reflection support, but also all
+subtypes of `C`. Finally, it is possible to admit instances of subtypes as
+reflectees of a small set of mirrors, such that partial reflection
+support is achieved for many classes, without the cost of having many
+mirror classes.
+
+# References
+
+ 1. Gilad Bracha and David Ungar. "Mirrors: design principles for
+    meta-level facilities of object-oriented programming languages".  ACM
+    SIGPLAN Notices. 24 Oct. 2004: 331-344.
+ 2. Brian Cantwell Smith. "Procedural reflection in programming
+    languages." 1982.
+ 3. Jonathan M. Sobel and Daniel P. Friedman. "An introduction to
+    reflection-oriented programming."  Proceedings of Reflection.
+    Apr. 1996.